The act of reclaiming slurs, “the phenomenon whereby a stigmatized group revalues an externally imposed negative label by self-consciously referring to itself in terms of that label,” is not a new phenomenon. Throughout history, in an attempt to reappropriate the original malicious and oppressive meaning, marginalized groups have reclaimed derogatory slurs. The reclamation of slurs and derogatory terms has been present in many realms- political, artistic, social, and racial. Linguistic reclamation is an example of Michel Foucault’s theory of reverse discourse, which is the changing of the flow of power. In short, it is a grab-back of power: You created and use this word with the intention to harm us, but we are making it ours now. ;xNLx;;xNLx;This timeline aims to track significant instances of linguistic reclamation, as well as to consider the following questions: Is the act of reclaiming slurs effective? Who is allowed to use reclaimed slurs? Are there some words that should not be reclaimed? ;xNLx;
The term “bitch” was originally used to refer to the female form of animals like dogs, wolves, and foxes. Around the late 16th century, the word was increasingly used as a negative way to refer to women and things considered “lewd”, “treacherous”, “difficult” and “malicious”. According to Oxford Dictionaries, the term was commonly used in this context throughout English Literature. For the most part, it was used as an insult and way to disrespect women.
Throughout history, the N-Word has included many spelling variations. The root of the N-word has its origins in Latin derived languages like Spanish and Portuguese to designate something as “black”. The word was used in reference to people of African descent and during the development of the Atlantic Slave Trade in the 16 to 19 centuries, became a label that dehumanized persons considered black. The derogatory use of the N-Word stems from a dichotomy that placed whiteness as the epitome of everything good, while blackness was constructed to symbolize negative human qualities. The dominance of the slave trade placed many peoples of African descent in positions of subordination that proliferated the use of the word as a negative way to characterize black people.
Cavalier was a derogatory term used against wealthy Royalist supporters of King Charles I and his son King Charles II during the English Civil War. It was coined by Roundheads, also known as Parliamentarians, who wanted a constitutional monarchy, rather than King Charles’ absolutist monarchy. The term targeted long-haired, frivolous men who, according to Roundheads, lacked a respect for God. The term was heavily tied to the extravagant fashion of the Royalists. From The History of Rebellion by the 1st Earl of Clarendon, Edward Hyde. “Several sorts of malignant Men, who were about the King; some whereof, under the name of Cavaliers, without having respect to the Laws of the Land, or any fear either of God or Man, were ready to commit all manner of Outrage and Violence.” However, over time, the Royalists reclaimed the slur and turned it into one of honor. Cavalier fell out of use when it was replaced with “Tory” during the Exclusion Crisis of 1678–1681. Today, “cavalier” is an adjective used to describe indifference, offhandedness.
However, over time, the Royalists reclaimed the slur and turned it into one of honor. Cavalier fell out of use when it was replaced with “Tory” during the Exclusion Crisis of 1678–1681. Today, “cavalier” is an adjective used to describe indifference, offhandedness. It is also the name of a cute dog breed!
The Oxford English Dictionary defines witch as “a female magician, sorceress; in later use esp. a woman supposed to have dealings with the devil or evil spirits and to be able by their co-operation to perform supernatural acts.” It is derived from the Old English word wicca. “Witch” has historically been used against women, intertwined with accusation of dark witchcraft and hysteria. One of the most famous instances is the Salem Witch Trials. Between February 1692 and May 1693, 20 people (14 of them women) were executed for “witchcraft.” Heavy religious influences and misogyny allowed for the swift and many accusations and hangings of the innocent people.
In spite of its long, mostly dark history, the word “witch” has experienced reclamation. Since the late 1990s, Wicca, Pagan, Witchcraft, and Goddess Spirituality followers have begun to choose to identify as “witches” and not the less loaded title “wiccan.” From M. Macha Nightmare’s article “The ‘W’ Word, or Why We Call Ourselves Witches”: “As we say in our Principles of Unity, ‘we are an evolving, dynamic tradition and proudly call ourselves Witches.’ Words have power. We Witches know that from our work. We know that when we summon a deity by name, that is the deity who responds, not another. We know that naming gives power over that which is named. When we can name our fears, we can begin to control them, and perhaps even overcome them. In addition, by calling ourselves Witches, we honor our oppressed foremothers who survived centuries of inequities. Reclaiming Witches place a high value on social justice. Reclaiming a word that was used to denigrate our foremothers identifies us more strongly with them. It reinforces our work on behalf of the disenfranchised and against all forms of injustice.” More contemporary examples include “The Skate Witches,” a collective of politically and socially active female skateboarders. They have a long running zine that aims to promote community and encourage girls to start skating.
The term “Prime Minister” as we know it today emerged in the 18th century, during the prolonged conflict between Britain and France. It was first applied insultingly to Sir Robert Walpole, who is now considered the first Prime Minister of Great Britain. It was used by members of Parliament against Walpole, who served for 21 years and oversaw the increasing power of his role and simultaneous withdrawal of King George I from cabinet meetings. The derogatory nature was derived from its comparison to France’s Chief Minister, Cardinal Richelieu. The British were proud of not to be an absolute monarchy, like France, so the comparison was intended to be offensive.
“Prime Minister” gradually shed its negative connotation under William Pitt the Younger, who ruled during the early 19th century. The role’s political importance increased, and earned more respect. It is as an official title today.
The first record of the term “Yankee” is in a 1765 writing called Oppression, a Poem by an American. The unknown writer discusses being informed of the word’s use as a derogatory name for inhabitants of New England given to them by Southern Americans. Although the word may have started out as a nickname, during the War of Succession, Confederate soldiers used it as a designation for soldiers in the Federal Army. The contrasting motivations of these opposing groups contributed to the use of the word as an insult to Northerners by members of the South.
During the late 18th century and mid-19th century, there is a change in who uses the word Yankee. Although Southerners still use the term to reference Northerners, an influx of English writers and speakers use the word in reference to inhabitants of the United States.Thomas Twining, an English classical scholar, states that, “We apply this designation as a term of ridicule or reproach to the inhabitants of all parts of the United States indiscriminately.” In the mid 19th century, the term is again used by Americans, but with a less derogatory definition. Nathaniel Hawthorne, a prominent American novelist, uses the word in his novel American Notebooks when he says, “ It sounds strangely to hear children bargaining in French on the borders of Yankee-land.” The context in which the term Yankee is used implies a more neutral classification of the word.
Although the reclamation of slurs can be an act of empowerment for marginalized communities, some words are perceived as too corrupt to claim. Examples of this are words like chink, feminazi, and retard that embody a spirit of persecution and discrimination. These words are unable to be claimed because they overwhelmingly carry a sense of hate and abuse. Because some of these words are tied to historical events, marginalized groups may be reluctant to position themselves as advocates of the redefining of the word.The reclamation of slurs by marginalized groups depends on many factors like historical context, origin, and a general sense of acceptance within the community oppressed. As a result, not every slur is able to be successfully reclaimed.
During the mid 19th century, France still very much valued art that depicted significant historical events, portraits, and religious subjects. So the art of Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley, and Frederic Bazille was initially rejected and ridiculed by the established art community. Their art depicted landscapes and contemporary life in its simplest form, inherently at odds with the realistic and precise art championed at the time. In 1874, a large group of Impressionist artists held an exhibition of their work. Response was mixed and some reacted very negatively. A critic named Louis Leroy coined the term in his review titled “Exhibition of the Impressionists” writing "Impression – I was certain of it. I was just telling myself that, since I was impressed, there had to be some impression in it ... and what freedom, what ease of workmanship! Wallpaper in its embryonic state is more finished than that seascape." This was a direct critique of Monet’s “Impression, Sunrise.”
However, the term was embraced by the artists themselves, as well as the public as general opinion swayed in favor of the colorful artwork. The term went on to be applied to music, sculpture, and literature.
The term misandry, defined in the dictionary as the dislike of men, is a term closely associated with people who identify with the feminist movement. According to oxford dictionaries, the word came into use around the late 19th century. A possible reason for this may be the rise of women in the labor movement and the increasing dissatisfaction of women with the status quo. Misandry was and is still used today as a way to discredit opinions that question the status of men in the world.
The digital reclamation of the word misandry can be seen in the editorial pieces written by writers starting around 2015 in major online media outlets. Articles in Vice Magazine and Matter titled “ The Memefication of Misandry” and “ the Year in male Tears” detail how the word misandry can no longer be used to in the context of women hating men. They called for misandry to be understood as the rejection of male approval and as a “ rage against patriarchal power.” Through online hashtags like #GiveYourMoneyToWomen and the performative misandry of videos like Bitch Better Have My Money, women are taking ownership of the action and word to signal to men a disapproval for gender injustice.
“Suffragettes” was first used by journalist Charles E. Hands in a London Daily Mail article published in 1906. He used it in an attempt to mock and demean the more “militant” suffragists of the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), who were known to use hunger strikes and destruction of private property. The “-ette” suffix is diminutive and connotes smallness (i.e.towelette, cigarette). Suffragette intentionally tried marginalize and belittle the women fighting aggressively for their right to vote.
The women of WSPU embraced the slur and reappropriated by emphasizing the “G” - SuffraGETte, as in, they will get the right to vote. There is some contemporary disagreement about the use of Suffragette. In her article “Please Don’t Call Them Suffragettes,” Gloria Shur Bilchik argues against the reclamation of the word, citing that “there was nothing “ette-ish” about the struggle for American women’s right to vote.” She insists that “suffragists” should be used, as it was the term “these activists chose for themselves.”
The word “queer” was originally used in the English language to describe something that was peculiar, strange, or odd. During the early 20th century, the word took on a different meaning when heterosexual individuals in the U.S began to use it as an offensive slur against people who defied norms associated with gender and sexuality. A 1914 article by the Los Angeles Times states, “He said that the Ninety-six Club was the best; that it was composed of the ‘queer’ people... He said that the members sometimes spent hundreds of dollars on silk gowns, hosiery, etc.... At these ‘drags’ the ‘queer’ people have a good time.” This use of the word shows the transition of queer from meaning “ odd” to being associated with people who went against established norms.
The appropriation of the word queer by gender nonconforming individuals began during the 1980s as a form of self-reference. It was used to establish community for people who wanted an identity outside of the restricting identity “gay”. The word queer also found a place in academic texts as scholars during the late 90s used it to establish queer theory that examined ideas surrounding gender and sexuality.
The origin of the word “dyke” is unclear as there are many theories about how and where the word first got its meaning. An earlier form, “bulldyke” was used as part of African American slang in Harlem. Harlem Renaissance writers like Claude Mckay and Carl Van Vechten used it in their writings to refer to women who displayed traditionally “masculine” characteristics through either dress or physical action. It held an undertone of ridicule that was meant to mock and discredit women who defied gender and sexuality norms. During the mid-20th century, feminist movements criticized what was considered the “dyke” lifestyle in their attempt to participate in respectability politics. They wanted women in the movement to display more traditional feminine characteristics in order to appeal to a wider audience.
During the 1980s, many lesbians began using the word as form of self-reference. In an effort to reclaim and reform the word, many lesbians have organized Pride events called Dyke Marches and Dykes on Bikes. Today, when used by LGBTQ persons, the word “dyke” is seen as an informal and positive way to refer to female identifying individuals whose sexuality and gender expression contradict social norms.
Originally coined by Russian sociologist Jacques Novicow, “yellow peril” (Le Péril Jaune) was the belief that East Asians (then known as “Orientals”) were a threat to western culture. Rooted more in racism than in nationalism, the term encompassed general negative western opinion of specifically the Chinese and Japanese as “apes, lesser men, primitives, children, madmen, and beings who possessed special powers". It was employed by Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany to incite support of the invasion and colonization of China. In America, even before the term was coined, xenophobia towards Asians was already being institutionalized, as seen in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. White working-class Americans feared losing their jobs to the "filthy yellow hordes" amidst an economic downturn so restrictions on citizenship and bans on immigration were implemented. Later, after Japan defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, there was heightened Yellow Peril xenophobia against Japan. The bombing of Pearl Harbor also saw a spike in hatred and distrust of the Japanese.
The reclamation of “Yellow Peril” has been historically very political. Captured on film, a famous black and white photograph from 1969 depicts Asian American activists protesting in solidarity with Black activist Huey Newton. One of their signs reads: “Yellow Peril Supports Black Power.” Here, Yellow Peril is empowering and used as a self-identifying term. Stereotypes fabricated by white people have long contributed to the wedge between Asians and black Americans and the sign directly addresses this issue.
“Social Justice Warrior” gained prominence as a derogatory term during the 2014 #Gamergate movement. Before that, the term originated around the late 20th century as a positive description for people who participated in social justice activism.There were some negative uses of the word but it was mostly used in an affirmative context for people engaging in activism. The term first appeared online on the social media site, Twitter, and in an urban dictionary definition that defined it as, “ A pejorative term for an individual who repeatedly and vehemently engages in arguments on social justice on the Internet, often in a shallow or not well-thought-out way, for the purpose of raising their own personal reputation.” The term social justice warrior was used in a negative context when it first appeared on the Internet. As #gamergate, a movement centered on harassing women, gained momentum in late 2014, subscribers to its ideology used the term to attack people participating in online call out culture. Today the term has evolved into both a slur and an accolade depending on who uses it. A quick search of social justice warrior on Twitter yields results that show the word being used in both contexts in equal volume. 1 2 3
It’s hard to trace the reclamation of the word “Bitch”, but in looking at pop culture from the early 90s to the present, there have been significant examples in mainstream media of the word being used as a form of empowerment. In the 1997 release of the song “Bitch” Meredith Brooks proudly sings about being a bitch among other things like being a lover, sinner, and saint. The founders and editors of the popular feminist website Bitch Media , wear the name like a badge of honor. On their About page they claim that by re appropriating the word, it loses its power to hurt them. A more current example of re-appropriation would be the term “bad bitch”. Originally used in rap music to “praise” one specific type of woman, the term has evolved through social media to reference women who are independent and “about their money”. Opinions on what a “bad bitch” is changes by the person, but the term is generally used as a form of appreciation.
The reclamation of the N-Word has an interesting history because only one variation is currently seen as acceptable within black communities in the United States.The term “nigger” has fell out of use as acceptable speech but on the other hand, the word “nigga” is widely used in popular black culture today as a form of endearment and self identification. In looking at digital media, platforms like vine, twitter,Instagram, and youtube promote black content creators that normalize the use of the word within the black community. Hip-Hop music, videos and short theatrical clips all contribute to the use of the word as a term of endearment and companionship.
Today the term has evolved into both a slur and an accolade depending on who uses it. A quick search of social justice warrior on Twitter yields results that show the word being used in both contexts in equal volume. For example, there is an account named SJW Nonsense (@sjw_nonsense) that is "Documenting SJW craziness" by retweeting tweets crafted by feminists
The hashtag #WhiteGirlsDoItBetter has its roots in internet porn sites trying to promote interracial pornography videos. White female Twitter users unaffiliated with the porn industry began to use the hashtag, “highlighting the physical and thus overall superiority of white women to women of color, particularly black women“ by posting provocative selfies.
People of color, specifically black women, responded by tweeting examples of problematic behavior of white women such as cultural appropriation, and sarcastically tagging it #WhiteGirlsDoItBetter. One of the more prominent examples of the reappropriation of this hashtag is Amandla Stenberg’s comment on Kylie Jenner’s selfie, in which Jenner is sporting cornrows, a traditionally black hairstyle: “When u appropriate black features and culture but fail to use ur position of power to help black Americans by directing attention towards ur wigs instead of police brutality or racism #whitegirlsdoitbetter.” Black women turned the demeaning and racist hashtag into one that allowed them to call attention to racist, problematic behavior of white women.
During the 2016 Presidential Election, viewers tuned in to a debate between then Presidential candidate Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton expecting a respectful discussion of policy by the two contenders. Instead President Donald Trump, interrupting Hillary Clinton, remarked, “such a nasty woman.”
The phrase, used in derision of Hillary Clinton, quickly gained media attention as twitter users began using the hashtag #nastywoman as a form of solidarity with women. T-shirts and social media statuses using the phrase in the context of female empowerment contributed to feminist participation in mainstream political discourse. It also spawned many other hashtags in retaliation to Donald Trump and the condescending tone used to disqualify the opinions of women. Today #nastywoman is seen as one of the rallying cries for participants of the 2017 Women’s March and women who renounce misogyny.
Its very existence proves that linguistic reclamation holds importance and at least perceived value to marginalized communities that engage in it. A 2013 study titled “The Reappropriation of Stigmatizing Labels: The Reciprocal Relationship Between Power and Self-Labeling” found that people who reclaimed slurs "felt more powerful after self-labeling, and observers perceived them and their group as more powerful." This is a compelling outcome because not only does it address what reclamation does for the actor, but also for the observers. Paul Baker, professor of English Language at Lancaster University: “Control language and you control the society." There are, however, those in opposition of linguistic reclamation. They say that its outcomes are mixed at best. If two women are fighting and one calls the other a "bitch" it is offensive, even though the term can be deemed reclaimed. Those in opposition also cite the instance of the wrong people engaging in reclamation (ex: non-black rappers using the n-word). There must also be consideration for why some slurs have not been reclaimed. Is there something about slurs such as "chink" or "retarded" that have stopped people from reclaiming them? What makes some words seemingly off-limits? Is it up to the discretion of the targeted group? These are questions to consider as we choose to utilize linguistic reclamation in order to move towards our more ideal, equal world.
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