I. Apostolic Ministry, Authority, and Opposition:;xNLx;;xNLx;Apostle (e.g., 2 Corinthians 1:1; 8:23 [messengers/apostles of the churches]; 11:5, 13; 12:11-12): Meaning "sent one." Paul uses this term to refer to himself as one directly commissioned by Jesus Christ with divine authority to preach the gospel and establish churches. He vigorously defends his legitimacy as an apostle against those in Corinth who were challenging it.;xNLx;Super-apostles (2 Corinthians 11:5; 12:11): Paul's ironic and critical term for his opponents in Corinth, who were likely Judaizing teachers or Gnostic-like figures boasting of their own credentials, eloquence, and spiritual experiences, and undermining Paul's authority and message.;xNLx;False apostles / Deceitful workmen (2 Corinthians 11:13): Paul's direct condemnation of his opponents, describing them as those who disguise themselves as apostles of Christ but are actually serving Satan and preaching a different gospel or a different Jesus.;xNLx;Letters of recommendation / Commendation (2 Corinthians 3:1-3; 5:12; 10:12, 18; 12:11): In the ancient world, individuals often carried letters from recognized authorities to validate their credentials or introduce them to new communities. Paul's opponents in Corinth may have used or demanded such letters. Paul argues that the transformed lives of the Corinthians themselves are his letter of recommendation, written by the Spirit.;xNLx;Ministry (Greek: diakonia) (e.g., 2 Corinthians 3:3, 6-9; 4:1; 5:18; 6:3-4; 8:4, 19-20; 9:1, 12-13; 11:8, 15, 23): Service, often specifically referring to Paul's service as an apostle in preaching the gospel, teaching, and caring for the churches. He contrasts the "ministry of death" (associated with the Old Covenant/Law) with the "ministry of the Spirit" and "ministry of righteousness" (associated with the New Covenant).;xNLx;Ambassador (for Christ) (2 Corinthians 5:20): One who officially represents a ruler or government in a foreign land. Paul describes himself and other ministers of the gospel as ambassadors for Christ, entrusted with the message of reconciliation and pleading with people on Christ's behalf to be reconciled to God.;xNLx;Boast / Boasting (e.g., 2 Corinthians 1:12, 14; 5:12; 7:4, 14; 8:24; 9:2-4; 10:8, 13, 15-17; Chapters 11-12 [Paul's "foolish" boasting]): To speak with pride, often about one's accomplishments, authority, or experiences. Paul is reluctant to boast but is forced to do so (often ironically or by highlighting his weaknesses and sufferings) to counter the self-praise of his opponents and to affirm the legitimacy of his God-given ministry. He ultimately emphasizes boasting only in the Lord or in what God has done through him.;xNLx;Weakness (e.g., 2 Corinthians 4:7-12; 10:10; 11:21, 29-30; 12:5, 9-10; 13:3-4, 9): Paul frequently refers to his own physical ailments, sufferings, persecutions, and lack of worldly impressiveness. He argues that God's power is made perfect in weakness, and he boasts in his weaknesses so that Christ's power may rest on him. This contrasts sharply with the self-promoting strength often valued in Greco-Roman culture and by his opponents.;xNLx;Thorn in the flesh (2 Corinthians 12:7): An unspecified affliction or trial that Paul experienced, which he describes as a "messenger of Satan" to keep him from becoming conceited. Despite his prayers for its removal, God's grace was deemed sufficient.;xNLx;Visions and revelations (of the Lord) (2 Corinthians 12:1-7): Supernatural experiences where Paul received divine insights or was caught up into "the third heaven" or "paradise." He mentions these reluctantly as part of his defense against opponents who may have boasted of similar experiences.;xNLx;II. Theological Concepts:;xNLx;;xNLx;Comfort / Consolation (Greek: paraklesis) (e.g., 2 Corinthians 1:3-7; 7:4, 6-7, 13): A key theme in the opening of the letter. God is the "Father of mercies and God of all comfort," who comforts believers in their afflictions so that they can comfort others. This comfort is not just sympathy but also strengthening encouragement.;xNLx;Affliction / Suffering / Hardships / Calamities / Distresses (e.g., 2 Corinthians 1:4-10; 2:4; 4:8-12, 17; 6:4-5; 7:4-5; 8:2, 13; 11:23-29; 12:10): The trials, persecutions, difficulties, and physical and emotional pain endured by Paul and other believers for the sake of Christ and the gospel. Paul sees suffering as a shared experience with Christ and a means by which God's power and comfort are revealed.;xNLx;New Covenant (2 Corinthians 3:6-18): The new agreement or relationship between God and humanity established through Jesus Christ, contrasted with the Old Covenant given through Moses (associated with the written law on stone tablets). The New Covenant is characterized by the Spirit, life, righteousness, glory, and transformation into the likeness of Christ.;xNLx;Letter / Spirit (2 Corinthians 3:6-8): Paul contrasts the "letter" of the Old Covenant law (which brings death and condemnation because of human inability to keep it perfectly) with the life-giving "Spirit" of the New Covenant (who empowers and transforms).;xNLx;Veil (2 Corinthians 3:12-18): Alluding to Moses veiling his face after encountering God's glory, Paul uses the image of a veil to describe the spiritual blindness of those who do not turn to Christ when the Old Covenant is read. In Christ, the veil is removed, allowing believers to behold God's glory and be transformed.;xNLx;Glory (of God / of Christ) (e.g., 2 Corinthians 1:20; 3:7-11, 18; 4:4, 6, 15, 17; 8:19, 23): The manifestation of God's divine character, presence, majesty, and power. The glory of the New Covenant in Christ far surpasses that of the Old. Believers are being transformed from one degree of glory to another.;xNLx;Reconciliation / Reconciled (Greek: katallage, katallasso) (2 Corinthians 5:18-20): The restoration of a broken relationship, specifically God's act of restoring sinful humanity to fellowship with Himself through the atoning work of Jesus Christ. Believers are given the "ministry of reconciliation.";xNLx;New creation / New creature (2 Corinthians 5:17): The radical spiritual transformation that occurs when a person comes to faith in Christ: "if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed away; behold, the new has come.";xNLx;Righteousness (of God in Christ) (2 Corinthians 5:21; also 3:9; 6:7, 14; 9:9-10; 11:15): "For our sake he made him to be sin who knew no sin, so that in him we might become the righteousness of God" (5:21). This refers to the status of being in right relationship with God, which believers receive through faith in Christ, as Christ took their sin upon Himself.;xNLx;Treasure in jars of clay (2 Corinthians 4:7): A metaphor describing the surpassing power and glory of the gospel (the treasure) being carried in frail human beings (jars of clay, like Paul and other believers). This highlights that the power for ministry comes from God, not from human strength or eloquence.;xNLx;The god of this world / age (2 Corinthians 4:4): A reference to Satan, who blinds the minds of unbelievers to prevent them from seeing the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ.;xNLx;Light / Darkness (2 Corinthians 4:6; 6:14; 11:14): Paul uses this common biblical contrast. God, who commanded light to shine out of darkness, has shone in believers' hearts. Believers are called not to be unequally yoked with unbelievers (darkness). Satan can disguise himself as an angel of light.;xNLx;Faith (e.g., 2 Corinthians 1:24; 4:13; 5:7; 8:7; 10:15; 13:5): Trust and reliance on God and Jesus Christ. Paul speaks of walking by faith, not by sight, and encourages the Corinthians to examine themselves to see whether they are in the faith.;xNLx;Sanctification / Holiness (e.g., 2 Corinthians 1:12; 6:6; 7:1): Being set apart for God and living a life that is morally pure and dedicated to Him. Paul calls believers to cleanse themselves from every defilement and "bring holiness to completion in the fear of God.";xNLx;Grace (See Section I);xNLx;III. Giving, Stewardship, and Church Relations:;xNLx;;xNLx;Collection (for the saints) (2 Corinthians Chapters 8-9; also 1 Corinthians 16:1-4): A financial offering gathered by Paul from the Gentile churches (including Corinth) for the relief of poor Jewish believers in Jerusalem. Paul uses this as an opportunity to teach about Christian generosity and unity.;xNLx;Generosity / Liberality (e.g., 2 Corinthians 8:2; 9:5-7, 11, 13): Willingness to give freely and abundantly, especially to meet the needs of others. Paul commends the Macedonian churches for their generosity despite their poverty and encourages the Corinthians to excel in this grace.;xNLx;Stewardship / Steward (1 Corinthians 4:1-2, though the principle is strong in 2 Corinthians regarding ministry and resources): The responsible management of something entrusted to one's care. Paul viewed his apostolic ministry as a stewardship from God.;xNLx;Repentance / Grief that leads to repentance (2 Corinthians 7:8-11; 12:21): A turning away from sin with genuine sorrow and a change of heart and behavior. Paul speaks of the "godly grief" of the Corinthians that led to their repentance after receiving his previous severe letter.;xNLx;Forgiveness (2 Corinthians 2:5-11): Paul urges the Corinthian church to forgive and reaffirm their love for an individual who had caused offense and had apparently repented, lest he be overwhelmed by excessive sorrow or Satan take advantage of the situation.;xNLx;Titus (e.g., 2 Corinthians 2:13; 7:6, 13-15; 8:6, 16, 23; 12:18): A trusted co-worker of Paul, who played a key role in mediating between Paul and the Corinthian church and in organizing the collection.;xNLx;Macedonia / Achaia (e.g., 2 Corinthians 1:16; 2:13; 7:5; 8:1; 9:2, 4; 11:9-10): Roman provinces in Greece. Macedonia included cities like Philippi and Thessalonica. Achaia, where Corinth was located, was the southern part of Greece. Paul refers to the generosity of the Macedonian churches.;xNLx;IV. Other Notable Terms and Phrases:;xNLx;;xNLx;Amen (2 Corinthians 1:20): A Hebrew word meaning "truly," "so be it," or "it is firm/established." Paul states that all God's promises find their "Yes" (affirmation) in Christ, and through Him, believers utter their "Amen" to God for His glory.;xNLx;Fragrance of Christ (2 Corinthians 2:14-16): A metaphor describing believers and the proclamation of the gospel. To those being saved, it is a life-giving aroma; to those perishing, it is a deadly aroma.;xNLx;Unequally yoked (2 Corinthians 6:14): A metaphor drawn from the Old Testament prohibition against yoking an ox and a donkey together for plowing (Deuteronomy 22:10). Paul uses it to warn believers against forming close, binding partnerships (especially in religious or moral matters) with unbelievers that could compromise their faith and witness.;xNLx;Worldly grief / Godly grief (2 Corinthians 7:10): Paul distinguishes between sorrow that leads to death (worldly grief, like remorse without true repentance) and sorrow that is according to God's will and leads to repentance and salvation (godly grief).;xNLx;The "third heaven" / Paradise (2 Corinthians 12:2-4): Paul refers to a profound spiritual experience where he was "caught up" to a realm of God's immediate presence, hearing things that cannot be told.;xNLx;This list is intended to help clarify some of the key vocabulary and concepts found in 2 Corinthians (ESV). Understanding these terms in their original context is crucial for navigating Paul's passionate defense of his ministry, his theological arguments, and his pastoral heart for the Corinthian church.