I. Central Metaphors and Covenantal Terms:;xNLx;;xNLx;Harlotry / Whoredom / Prostitution (Spiritual Adultery) (e.g., Hosea 1:2; 2:2, 4-5, 10; 3:3; 4:10-15, 18; 5:3-4; 6:10; 9:1): A primary metaphor used by Hosea to describe Israel's unfaithfulness to God and His covenant. By worshipping other gods (like Baal) and seeking alliances with foreign nations rather than trusting in Yahweh, Israel is portrayed as an adulterous wife who has forsaken her husband (God). This refers to religious and national infidelity rather than literal prostitution in every instance, though cultic prostitution associated with pagan worship was also a reality.;xNLx;Adultery (Spiritual) (See "Harlotry"): Israel's breaking of its exclusive covenant relationship with Yahweh by turning to other gods and pagan practices.;xNLx;Covenant (Hebrew: berit) (e.g., Hosea 2:18; 6:7; 8:1; 10:4; 12:1): The solemn, binding agreement between God and Israel, established at Sinai, which Israel repeatedly violated. Hosea also speaks of God making a new covenant with creation (2:18) in the context of restoration.;xNLx;Steadfast love / Lovingkindness / Faithfulness (Hebrew: chesed) (e.g., Hosea 2:19; 4:1; 6:4, 6; 10:12; 11:4 [ESV "cords of kindness"]; 12:6): A key attribute of God emphasized by Hosea. It refers to God's loyal, covenant love, mercy, and enduring faithfulness towards Israel, despite their persistent unfaithfulness. God desires chesed from His people in return (6:6).;xNLx;Faithfulness (Hebrew: emunah) (e.g., Hosea 2:20): Reliability, steadfastness, loyalty. God promises to betroth Israel to Himself in faithfulness as part of the future restoration. Israel's lack of faithfulness is a major theme.;xNLx;Knowledge of God (e.g., Hosea 2:20; 4:1, 6; 5:4; 6:3, 6): Not merely intellectual awareness, but a deep, relational, and experiential understanding of God, His character, and His ways, leading to obedience and loyalty. Hosea laments that Israel is "destroyed for lack of knowledge.";xNLx;Betroth (Hosea 2:19-20): To formally promise or engage to marry. God uses this imagery to describe His future restoration of a faithful covenant relationship with Israel, characterized by righteousness, justice, steadfast love, mercy, and faithfulness.;xNLx;Lo-ammi (Hosea 1:9; 2:23): Hebrew for "not my people." The symbolic name given to one of Hosea's children, signifying God's temporary rejection or disowning of Israel due to their unfaithfulness. This judgment is later reversed in prophecies of restoration (2:23).;xNLx;Lo-ruhamah (Hosea 1:6; 2:23): Hebrew for "no mercy" or "she has not received compassion." The symbolic name given to one of Hosea's children, signifying God withholding His compassion from Israel due to their sin. This is also reversed in prophecies of restoration (2:23).;xNLx;Jezreel (Hosea 1:4-5, 11; 2:22-23):;xNLx;A fertile valley in northern Israel.;xNLx;The symbolic name given to one of Hosea's children. It recalls the bloody coup by Jehu at Jezreel (2 Kings 9-10) and signifies impending judgment ("God will sow" or "God will scatter"). However, in the context of restoration, the name takes on a positive meaning of future fruitfulness and God sowing His people in the land.;xNLx;II. Terms of Sin, Judgment, and Repentance:;xNLx;;xNLx;Idolatry / Idols / Calves of Samaria/Bethel/Gilgal (e.g., Hosea 2:8, 13, 17; 3:4; 4:12-13, 17; 8:4-6; 10:1-2, 5-6, 8; 11:2; 12:11; 13:1-2, 4; 14:3, 8): The worship of false gods or images, often in the form of bull calves (representing Yahweh or other deities in a syncretistic way) at cultic centers like Bethel and Dan (referred to as Beth-aven, "house of wickedness"), or other pagan deities like Baal. This is the primary manifestation of Israel's "harlotry.";xNLx;Baal / Baals (e.g., Hosea 2:8, 13, 16-17; 7:16 [ESV footnote]; 9:10; 11:2; 13:1): A prominent Canaanite fertility and storm god whose worship was widespread in Israel and fiercely condemned by Hosea as a betrayal of Yahweh.;xNLx;High Places (Hebrew: bamot) (e.g., Hosea 4:13; 10:8): Localized shrines, often on hilltops or under large trees, used for idolatrous worship and pagan rituals, including illicit sacrifices.;xNLx;Ephraim (Frequently throughout Hosea, e.g., Hosea 4:17; 5:3, 5, 9, 11-14; 6:4, 10; 7:1, 8, 11; 8:9, 11; 9:3, 8, 11, 13, 16; 10:6, 11; 11:3, 8-9, 12; 12:1, 8, 14; 13:1, 12; 14:8): The dominant tribe in the northern kingdom of Israel, often used by Hosea as a synonym for the entire northern kingdom itself.;xNLx;Samaria (e.g., Hosea 7:1; 8:5-6; 10:5, 7; 13:16): The capital city of the northern kingdom of Israel.;xNLx;Reap the whirlwind (Hosea 8:7): A proverbial expression meaning that actions have consequences, and that sowing evil or folly will result in a harvest of disaster and destruction far greater than what was sown.;xNLx;Broken / Crushed (e.g., Hosea 5:11; 6:1; 7:8 [a cake not turned]): Metaphors for Israel's spiritual, moral, and political state due to sin and impending judgment.;xNLx;Healing / Bind up (e.g., Hosea 5:13; 6:1; 7:1; 11:3; 14:4): God's desire and ability to restore and make whole His people if they repent. Israel often sought healing from futile sources (Assyria, Egypt) instead of from God.;xNLx;Return / Repent (Hebrew: shuv) (e.g., Hosea 2:7, 9; 3:5; 5:4, 15; 6:1, 11; 7:10, 16; 11:5; 12:6; 14:1-2, 7): To turn back to God from sin, idolatry, and reliance on human power, involving a change of heart and action. This is a constant call in Hosea.;xNLx;Chastisement / Discipline (e.g., Hosea 5:2; 7:12, 15; 10:10): God's corrective actions or punishments designed to bring Israel to repentance.;xNLx;Devour / Consume (e.g., Hosea 2:12; 5:7, 12, 14; 7:7, 9; 8:7-8, 14; 10:13; 11:6; 13:7-8, 15-16): Imagery of destruction, often by enemies (Assyria) or by internal corruption, as a result of God's judgment.;xNLx;Dew (Hosea 6:4; 13:3; 14:5): Used metaphorically:;xNLx;Israel's fleeting devotion is "like the dew that goes early away" (6:4; 13:3).;xNLx;In restoration, God will be "like the dew to Israel," bringing refreshment, life, and fruitfulness (14:5).;xNLx;East wind (Hosea 12:1; 13:15): A scorching, destructive wind from the desert, symbolizing judgment, desolation, and the destructive consequences of Israel's actions (like relying on Assyria).;xNLx;III. Political and Historical Allusions:;xNLx;;xNLx;Assyria / Asshur (e.g., Hosea 5:13; 7:11; 8:9; 9:3, 6; 10:6; 11:5, 11; 12:1; 14:3): The dominant Mesopotamian empire during Hosea's ministry, which threatened and eventually conquered and exiled the northern kingdom of Israel (in 722 BC, an event Hosea anticipates). Israel's attempts to seek alliances with Assyria were condemned as unfaithfulness to Yahweh.;xNLx;Egypt (e.g., Hosea 7:11, 16; 8:13 [ESV footnote]; 9:3, 6; 11:1, 5, 11; 12:1, 9, 13): A major power to the south, with which Israel also foolishly sought alliances and to which some Israelites fled. Hosea reminds them of their deliverance from Egypt and warns against returning to such dependence.;xNLx;Gilgal / Bethel / Beth-aven (e.g., Hosea 4:15; 5:8 [Beth-aven]; 9:15; 10:5, 8, 15 [Bethel/Beth-aven]; 12:11 [Gilgal]): Important cultic centers in Israel that became sites of idolatrous and syncretistic worship (especially the golden calf cults) and were therefore condemned by Hosea. "Beth-aven" (house of wickedness/idolatry) is a pejorative term Hosea uses for Bethel ("house of God").;xNLx;Gibeah (Hosea 5:8; 9:9; 10:9): A town in Benjamin notorious for a brutal crime (Judges 19-21), recalled by Hosea as an example of Israel's deep-seated sin and corruption.;xNLx;King / Princes / Rulers (e.g., Hosea 1:4 [house of Jehu]; 3:4; 5:1, 10; 7:3-7; 8:4, 10; 9:15; 10:3-4, 7, 15; 13:10-11): The political leadership of Israel, often criticized by Hosea for their corruption, instability (frequent assassinations and coups), reliance on foreign powers, and failure to uphold justice and true worship.;xNLx;IV. Agricultural and Nature Imagery (Often Symbolic):;xNLx;;xNLx;Sow / Reap (e.g., Hosea 2:23; 8:7; 10:4, 12-13): Common agricultural activities used metaphorically to illustrate the principle of consequences: sowing sin leads to reaping judgment, while sowing righteousness leads to reaping steadfast love and life.;xNLx;Vine / Grapes (e.g., Hosea 2:12, 15; 9:10; 10:1; 14:7): Israel is often compared to a vine. A fruitful vine represents blessing and faithfulness, while a degenerate or fruitless vine symbolizes apostasy and judgment.;xNLx;Fig tree (e.g., Hosea 2:12; 9:10): Another symbol of Israel and its well-being or spiritual state.;xNLx;Threshing floor / Winepress (e.g., Hosea 2:9 [ESV "grain and new wine"]; 9:1-2): Places of harvest and processing produce, used metaphorically in contexts of blessing or judgment (e.g., the threshing floor and winepress will not feed them in 9:2, indicating loss of blessing).;xNLx;Early rain / Latter rain / Spring rain (Hosea 6:3): Seasonal rains crucial for agriculture in Palestine, used as a symbol of God's reliable coming and refreshing presence if Israel returns to Him.;xNLx;This list provides definitions for many of the important and potentially challenging terms in the Book of Hosea (ESV). Understanding these within their historical, cultural, and metaphorical contexts will greatly aid in interpreting Hosea's passionate and profound message of God's judgment on sin and His persistent, redeeming love.